The Participle

1. General Information (Formation and Functioning)

There are two types of participles in English: participle I (or present participle) and participle II (or past participle). The difference between them lies not in time distinctions, as it may seem judging by the traditional names applied to them, but rather in voice distinctions, participle I being an active form and participle II – a passive one. In Russian participle I corresponds to 'причастие (or деепричастие) действительного залога' and participle II corresponds to 'причастие страдательного залога'.
Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, and participle II – by adding the suffix -ed to the stem of the regular verbs, while the irregular verbs have special forms of participle II.
Participle I has four forms altogether:
	Active	Passive	
Indefinite	writing	being written 	
Perfect	having written	having been written	
The indefinite forms, both active and passive, are used to express an action or a state simultaneous with that expressed by the predicate of the sentence.
She leaned against the gate pretending to read the morning paper.
The perfect forms, both active and passive, express an action or a state which took place before the time expressed by the predicate of the sentence.
Having returned from a business trip, he suggested new methods of work.
The indefinite forms may perform two syntactic functions: that of an attribute and that of an adverbial modifier, while the perfect forms may fill only the position of an adverbial modifier, and are never used as attributes. Thus, if it is necessary to render a Russian participial phrase, expressing an action prior to the action of the finite verb, one should use in English an attributive subordinate clause.
Проект, обсужденный на общем собрании рабочих, был вскоре одобрен дирекцией завода. – The project, which had been discussed at the workers' meeting, was soon approved by the directors of the factory.
When participles qualify a noun, they can be used attributively or predicatively.
It's an exciting story. The news was disappointing.
Like ordinary adjectives, single participles in attributive position usually precede the noun they qualify. But when an attributively used participle forms a phrase, the whole participial phrase should be put after the noun it modifies.
The falling leaves made me think about the coming autumn.
But: Here is a leaflet giving full particulars of the plan.
Participle I indefinite passive is not very often used with purely attributive force. But when it is used in this way, it should not be confused with participle II. Though both the participles express a passive action, there is still a certain difference in meaning: participle II expresses merely a state, while participle I indefinite passive expresses rather a progressive passive action represented as a state. A participial phrase with participle II as its head word is usually rendered in Russian with the help of a participial phrase, while a participial phrase with participle I indefinite passive corresponds to a Russian attributive clause with the verb in the form of the imperfect aspect (несовершенного вида).
Letters written by my sister are difficult to read. – Письма, написанные моей сестрой, трудно читать.
The letters being written by the engineer will be signed by the director. – Письма, которые сейчас пишет этот инженер, будут подписаны директором.
Participle I, both indefinite and perfect, and participle II can be used as adverbial modifiers:
– of time:
Seeing him on the other side of the street, I called him. Having sent the invitation, I felt a sense of relief.
– of reason (cause):
Being an orphan at six, he was brought up by a distant relative.
– of attendant circumstances:
I wrote him a friendly letter, thanking him for his help.
– of condition:
If sent immediately, the telegram will certainly be delivered by eight o'clock.
– of comparison:
She paced up and down the room restlessly as if trying to make some decision.
– of concession:
Though astonished by her interest in the details of the accident, I went on with my story.
As may be judged from some of these examples, participles in the adverbial function may be preceded by conjunctions. Here is the full list of such conjunctions: when, while, if, as if, as though, though.
Participle I indefinite active and participle II may also function as predicatives after link-verbs.
This story is really very exciting. While we were speaking, she grew more and more excited.
Note. – Participles used predicatively are often on the borderline with adjectives or have already become pure adjectives.
There is an increasing tendency in present-day English to use participle I after a number of intransitive verbs, such as to go (out), to come, to lie, to sit, to stand. In combination with a participle these verbs may be regarded as link-verbs, too.
She sat writing. The child came leaping towards me.
Participle I may also be used as a parenthesis, i.e. it serves only to introduce a new idea or to connect two ideas and is not logically related to the subject of the verb. In this case a number of set expressions are mostly used: generally speaking, strictly speaking, roughly speaking, granting it to be true, judging by, judging from, and so on.
Roughly speaking, the number of birds on this island exceeds one million.
If a participial phrase is used in a sentence as an attribute or an adverbial modifier, it must be correctly related: used as an attribute, it should be placed immediately after the word it modifies. In the adverbial function the participle should have logically the same subject as the predicate of the whole sentence. Mis-related participles are a very bad mistake in English.

2. Predicative Constructions with Participles

If a participle has a subject of its own, it forms together with its subject a predicative construction. There are four predicative constructions with participles.

2.1. The Objective Participial Construction
The verbs of sense perception (feel, hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, watch, listen) and the verbs to have, to get are often followed by the objective participial construction, i.e. by a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case) and a participle, standing in predicate relation to each other. When translated into Russian, both parts of the construction correspond to the subject and predicate of a subordinate object clause.
I heard him practising his violin. – Я слышал, как он играет на скрипке.
The objective-with-the-infinitive construction is also used after these verbs, the only difference being that the construction with participles describes the action as being in progress, while the infinitive is used to denote a complete act.
After the verbs to imagine, to smell, to look (at), to keep, to catch, to set, to start, to leave, to send the objective-with-the-infinitive construction is never used. The only possible construction after these verbs is the objective participial construction.
I can smell dinner cooking. Please, help me to start these mechanisms working.
When the subject of the participle is represented by a lifeless thing, the second part of the construction is expressed by participle II.
I heard these words mentioned several times.
After the verbs to make, to get, to like, to want the construction is used only with participle II.
He soon made his presence felt. She wanted her pie heated.
The objective participial construction with participle II, when used after the verb to have, has a special meaning, i.e. it expresses the idea of something done for the benefit of the person, expressed by the subject of the sentence.
I had my room papered, i.e. somebody papered my room for me.
In this case the subject of the participle is always represented by a noun expressing a lifeless thing.
Note. – In colloquial English the verb to have may be substituted by to have got: He has got his country house painted inside and out.

2.2. The Subjective Participial Construction
When the subject of the sentence and the participle stand in predicate relation to each other, they form the subjective participial construction. This construction is used when the predicate of the sentence is expressed by one of the verbs of sense perception in the passive voice.
They were seen speaking to the head-teacher.
This construction is parallel to the subjective infinitive construction. English sentences with these constructions correspond in Russian to complex sentences where the main clause is one-member and indefinite and the subordinate object clause has the subject corresponding to the subject of the English sentence and the predicate corresponding to the participle of the English sentence.
The pilot could be heard singing. – Можно было слышать, как пилот поет.
This construction is formed only with participle I of the active voice.
It can be easily understood that any sentence containing as its part an objective participial construction may be transformed into a sentence with a subjective participial construction. But it should be borne in mind that sentences of the second type are used when the doer of the action expressed by the finite verb is relatively immaterial for the speaker and the  hearer.
I saw him driving a car. He was seen driving a car.

2.3. The Absolute Participial Construction
The participle which is used as an adverbial adjunct to any verb may be preceded by a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the nominative case) functioning as its subject. The whole construction is used as one sentence-component: an adverbial modifier of time, reason, condition, manner or attendant circumstances, and is called the absolute participial construction. It is separated by a comma from the main part of the sentence. This construction is rendered in Russian by means of a corresponding adverbial clause.
Her luggage registered, she went to the platform. (an adverbial modifier of time) – Когда ее багаж был зарегистрирован, она пошла на платформу. Our teacher having fallen ill, we had no English class. (an adverbial modifier of reason) – Так как наша преподавательница заболела, у нас не было занятия по английскому языку. The show being not very long, we shall be able to get to the Petrovs in good time. (an adverbial modifier of condition) – Если сеанс будет не очень длинным, мы сможем попасть к Петровым вовремя.
When, however, functioning as an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances, this construction occupies in the majority of cases the end position in the sentence. In these cases it corresponds in Russian to the second part of a compound sentence (often introduced by the Russian conjunctions причем, a).
We spent the summer in their cottage, they occupying the front room and we having the verandah at our disposal. (an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances) – Мы провели лето на даче, причем они занимали комнату, а мы имели в нашем распоряжении веранду.
All forms of participle I are used in this construction as well as participle II.
The absolute participial construction is literary rather than colloquial.

2.4. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction
The subject of the participle, used as an adverbial adjunct to the predicate in the main part of the sentence, may be introduced by the preposition with. In this case the subject is expressed by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case. The noun (or pronoun) together with the preposition with and the participle form the so-called prepositional absolute participial construction. It is always separated from the main part of the sentence by a comma.
This construction is used mostly as an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances. It is translated into Russian as the second part of a compound sentence.
I remained silent, with my lips compressed tightly. – Я молчал, мои губы были крепко сжаты.
Very seldom the construction may be used as an adverbial modifier of time. In this case it precedes the main part of the sentence.
With the clock chiming seven times, she jumped out of bed and hurried to the kitchen. – Когда часы пробили семь раз, она вскочила с кровати и поспешила на кухню.
It may also be used as an attribute standing in immediate postposition to its antecedent.
James, with his heart pounding with fear, stood in the corridor waiting to be called in. – Джеймс, сердце которого сильно билось от страха, стоял в коридоре и ждал, пока его вызовут.
In the last two cases the construction is rendered in Russian with the help of the corresponding subordinate clauses.